Family and Social Structure in Byzantium: The Household as the Heart of Society

The family was the basic unit of Byzantine society, and the social structure of the empire was organized around the relationships of the household, the kin group, and the larger community. From the imperial family, with its elaborate ceremonial and its dynastic concerns, to the peasant household, with its simple rhythms of work and prayer, the family was the principal means of transmitting property, status, and identity across generations. The study of the Byzantine family is, in this sense, the study of the most fundamental element of Byzantine social life.

This exploration of family and social structure in Byzantium examines the principal features of the Byzantine family, the role of marriage, the position of women and children, the structure of the kin group, and the social organization of the empire at large.

The Imperial Family

The Imperial Household

The imperial family was the most important and the most elaborate in the Byzantine world, and it was organized around the person of the emperor. The emperor was the head of the imperial household, and he was the source of all authority within the family. The empress was the head of the imperial women’s quarters, and she supervised the education of the imperial children, the management of the imperial household, and the production of the imperial garments.

The imperial family included not only the immediate family of the emperor but also a large extended family, including the emperor’s brothers, sisters, cousins, and in-laws. The extended imperial family was an important political institution, since the members of the family often held high offices in the church and the state, and they were the principal pool from which the emperor could choose a wife or a successor.

The succession to the imperial throne was based, in theory, on the principle of primogeniture, the inheritance by the eldest son. In practice, however, the succession was often contested, and many emperors came to the throne by usurpation, by marriage, or by appointment. The members of the imperial family who were passed over in the succession often rebelled, and the history of the empire is full of civil wars fought between rival members of the imperial family.

The Empress

The empress was a powerful figure in the imperial household, and she often exercised considerable influence on the imperial policy. The most famous example is Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian I, who reportedly saved her husband’s throne during the Nika Riots of 532 and who exercised a powerful influence on imperial policy, especially in religious matters. Other powerful empresses included Irene of Athens, who ruled as emperor in her own right in 797–802, and Zoe Karbonopsina, who dominated politics in the early tenth century.

The empress was also an important religious figure, and she was often the patron of monasteries, churches, and charitable institutions. The empress’s piety was an important element of her public persona, and the empress was often depicted in the company of saints and the Virgin Mary. The empress was also the head of the imperial women’s quarters, and she supervised the religious life of the women of the court.

The Aristocratic Family

The Great Households

The great aristocratic families of the empire, especially the families of the high officials and the great landowners, maintained elaborate households, with large numbers of servants, slaves, and dependents. The head of the household, the kyrios, was the master of the family, and he was responsible for the management of the family estate, the education of the children, and the conduct of the family affairs.

The aristocratic family was organized around the principle of male primogeniture, with the eldest son inheriting the family estate and the headship of the household. The younger sons often entered the church or the army, or they married into other aristocratic families, while the daughters married into other aristocratic families or entered the monasteries. The aristocratic family was also an economic unit, and the management of the family estate required the cooperation of all the members of the family.

The aristocratic woman had considerable power within the family, especially in the management of the household and the education of the children. The aristocratic woman was often well educated, and she was expected to be able to manage the household accounts, supervise the servants, and represent the family in the community. The aristocratic woman was also an important figure in the religious life of the family, and she was often the patron of local churches and monasteries.

Marriage among the Aristocracy

Marriage among the aristocracy was a serious matter, and it was carefully arranged by the families of the bride and groom. The typical pattern was for the families to negotiate a marriage contract, in which the bride’s family provided a dowry, the groom’s family provided a bride price, and the terms of the marriage were specified. The marriage contract was a legal document, and it was binding on both families.

The age of marriage among the aristocracy was typically later than among the peasantry, with brides marrying in their late teens or early twenties, and grooms in their twenties or early thirties. The aristocratic marriage was often a political alliance, and the families used marriages to cement their relationships with other aristocratic families. The marriage of an aristocratic woman to a member of the imperial family was a particular honor, and it often brought the woman’s family into the imperial circle.

The Peasant Family

The Peasant Household

The peasant household was the most common family form in the Byzantine world, and it was the basic unit of the rural economy. The peasant household typically included the head of the household, his wife, their children, and sometimes the parents or siblings of the head. The peasant household also included the slaves and the dependent laborers who worked on the family farm, and it was a small economic unit that produced most of what it consumed.

The peasant household was organized around the principle of male headship, with the father as the master of the household. The mother was responsible for the management of the household, the care of the children, and the production of the family’s food and clothing. The children of the peasant household were expected to work on the farm from an early age, and they were educated in the basic skills of farming, animal husbandry, and household work.

The peasant household was also a religious unit, and the religious life of the family was centered on the local parish church. The family attended the Divine Liturgy on Sundays and feast days, and the priest of the parish was an important figure in the life of the family. The peasant family observed the Orthodox calendar of fasts and feasts, and the religious life of the family was closely tied to the agricultural cycle.

Marriage among the Peasantry

Marriage among the peasantry was typically earlier than among the aristocracy, with brides often marrying at twelve or thirteen, and grooms at fourteen or fifteen. The peasant marriage was typically arranged by the families of the bride and groom, and the bride price and the dowry were typically much smaller than in the aristocratic marriage. The peasant marriage was often a matter of practical alliance, with the families seeking to combine their lands, to cement their relationships with other peasant families, or to ensure the care of elderly parents.

The peasant bride was typically given a dowry that included household goods, clothing, and sometimes a small amount of land or livestock. The dowry was the bride’s property, and it was intended to provide for her in case of widowhood or divorce. The peasant bride also brought her own labor to the marriage, and she was expected to contribute to the work of the household and the farm.

The Position of Women

Legal Status

The legal status of women in the Byzantine world was complex, and it varied by class, by region, and by period. In general, Byzantine law gave women considerable protections, including the right to own and inherit property, the right to divorce under certain conditions, and the right to make contracts. The Byzantine law code, the Basilika, included extensive provisions for the protection of women, especially in the areas of marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

The Byzantine woman had the right to own and inherit property, and she could use this property as she wished. The Byzantine woman also had the right to make contracts, including contracts of marriage, contracts of loan, and contracts of sale. The Byzantine woman could also appear in court, and she could bring lawsuits and defend herself against lawsuits. The Byzantine woman could also act as a witness, although her testimony was typically given less weight than that of a man.

The social status of Byzantine women varied considerably. The aristocratic woman had considerable freedom and influence, and she was often well educated, well dressed, and well connected. The peasant woman, by contrast, had a more restricted life, and her work was largely confined to the household and the farm. The urban woman, especially the woman of the merchant class, had a different status, and she often worked in the family business and participated in the public life of the community.

The religious life offered an alternative to marriage for many Byzantine women. The nun, who took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, lived in a monastery under the rule of an abbess, and she had the opportunity to pursue an education, to engage in charitable work, and to participate in the religious life of the community. The monasteries of the Byzantine world were important institutions, and they offered many women an alternative to the marriage and the family.

The Position of Children

Infancy and Childhood

Children were valued in the Byzantine family, both as heirs and as sources of family labor. The birth of a child was a major event in the family, and it was marked by religious rituals, including the churching of the mother and the baptism of the child. The baptism, typically administered within the first year of life, was a major event, and it was attended by the parents, the godparents, and the wider family.

The infant was cared for by the mother, with the assistance of other women of the household. The infant was breastfed for the first year or two of life, and the wet nurse was a common alternative in the aristocratic households. The infant was gradually weaned and introduced to solid foods, and the mother was responsible for the care of the child until the child was old enough to join the wider household.

The child of the peasant household was expected to work from an early age, and the children of the peasant family were typically involved in the work of the farm and the household from the age of five or six. The children of the aristocratic household, by contrast, were typically given a more extended childhood, and they were educated in the skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic, often under the supervision of a private tutor.

Education

The education of children varied by class, by region, and by period. The peasant child was typically educated at home, learning the skills of farming, animal husbandry, and household work from the parents. The urban child, especially the child of the merchant class, was often given a more formal education, learning to read and write in the local school, and learning the skills of the family trade. The aristocratic child was typically given the most extended education, with private tutors and attendance at the imperial school of the Magnaura or the patriarchal school of the Hagia Sophia.

The education of girls was typically less formal than the education of boys, but it was not neglected. Girls in aristocratic households were often given a thorough education in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and they were taught the skills of household management, including spinning, weaving, and cooking. Girls in peasant households were educated in the skills of the household and the farm, and they were expected to learn the religious practices of the Orthodox church.

Old Age and Death

Old Age

Old age was respected in the Byzantine world, and the elderly were often the source of wisdom, the keepers of family memory, and the patrons of religious institutions. The elderly were often cared for by their children, and the care of elderly parents was considered an important religious duty. The monasteries of the Byzantine world often had special facilities for the elderly, and many of the great monasteries of the empire were founded by and for the elderly.

The elderly often had considerable influence in the family, especially in the management of the family property and the arrangement of marriages. The grandparents were often the source of family stories, of family traditions, and of family piety, and they played an important role in the religious education of the grandchildren.

Death

Death was a constant presence in Byzantine life, especially given the high mortality rates from plague, war, and disease. The Byzantine funeral involved washing and dressing the body, an open lying in state, and a funeral liturgy in the parish church, followed by burial, usually in a family tomb or a monastic cemetery. The deceased was commemorated with annual liturgies, called mnemosyna, and with feasts on the fortieth day and the year anniversary of death.

The Byzantine attitude to death was shaped by the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body. The deceased was not considered to be simply dead, but to be at rest, awaiting the resurrection of the body at the Last Judgment. The funeral liturgy, with its prayers for the departed, was an important element of the Byzantine religious life, and the commemoration of the dead was a central concern of the Byzantine family.

Conclusion

Byzantine Society and Daily Life — the broader context
Byzantine Wedding Traditions — the marriage ceremony
Byzantine Cuisine and Food — the food of the household
Byzantine Clothing and Fashion — the dress of the household
Education in the Byzantine Empire — the schools of the empire
Byzantine Emperors — the imperial family
Empress Theodora: Power Behind the Throne — the most famous empress
Byzantine Monasticism — the alternative to family life