Byzantine Culture

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Empress Theodora

Discover Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian I, who rose from humble origins to become one of the most powerful women in Byzantine history. Learn about her role in the Nika Riots, her political influence, and her legacy.

Empress Theodora, wife of Emperor Justinian I, was one of the most remarkable women in Byzantine history. Born into the lower classes of Constantinople, she rose through her beauty, her intelligence, and her force of personality to become the wife of the most powerful emperor of the Byzantine age. She exercised a profound influence on imperial policy, especially in religious matters, and her famous speech during the Nika Riots of 532 reportedly saved her husband’s throne and helped to shape the destiny of the empire. Her legacy has been celebrated in the modern world, especially in the feminist movement, as a powerful example of a woman who rose above her circumstances to exercise a major role in the political and religious life of her time.

The Early Life

From Humble Origins

Theodora was born in Constantinople in the early sixth century, the daughter of Acacius, a bear keeper at the Hippodrome, who worked for the Greens, one of the circus factions. Her mother was a woman named Theodora, who was also associated with the Hippodrome. Theodora’s early life is obscure, and the details of her youth are known mainly from the writings of Procopius, the official historian of the reign of Justinian, who was not always favorable to the empress.

According to Procopius, Theodora’s father died when she was young, and her mother was forced to take up acting to support the family. Theodora herself followed her mother into the acting profession, and she worked as an actress and a mime in the theater and in the circus. The acting profession of the time was closely associated with prostitution, and it was widely considered disreputable. Theodora, however, was reportedly intelligent and quick-witted, and she rose to prominence in the acting world.

Theodora’s beauty, her wit, and her ambition attracted the attention of the heir to the throne, who would later become Emperor Justinian I. Justinian, who was then a young man of about twenty, was captivated by Theodora, and he persuaded his uncle, the Emperor Justin I, to change the law that forbade men of senatorial rank from marrying actresses. The law was changed in 525, and Justinian married Theodora shortly thereafter.

The Path to the Throne

Marriage and Influence

Theodora’s marriage to Justinian was a scandal in the upper classes of Constantinople, who considered actresses to be little better than slaves. Yet Justinian, who had grown up in the same milieu as Theodora, was devoted to her, and he gave her a prominent place at the imperial court. Theodora was given the title of patrician, and she was given a position in the imperial household that allowed her to participate in the political and religious life of the empire.

Theodora used her position to exercise a powerful influence on imperial policy, especially in religious matters. She was a strong supporter of the Monophysite Christians, who were concentrated in the eastern provinces of the empire and who had been marginalized by the Chalcedonian orthodoxy favored by the court. Theodora’s influence helped to moderate the imperial policy toward the Monophysites, and she established churches, monasteries, and hospitals in the eastern provinces, where the Monophysites were concentrated.

Theodora was also a strong supporter of women’s rights, especially in matters of marriage and divorce. She persuaded Justinian to change the laws concerning marriage, divorce, and inheritance, giving women greater protection and a stronger position in the family. The famous law of 528, which gave women the right to divorce their husbands in cases of adultery, was a product of Theodora’s influence.

The Nika Riots

Theodora’s most famous moment came during the Nika Riots of 532, the great revolt that threatened to topple Justinian’s throne. According to the account of Procopius, who was an eyewitness, the emperor and his ministers were considering flight when Theodora intervened. Theodora reportedly addressed the council with these famous words: “I hold that the most miserable form of existence is for an emperor to flee. … If you wish to save yourself, O Emperor, that is easy. But I stay with the purple. The last word I shall speak is this: at the moment of danger, I shall not be put to shame.”

Theodora’s speech reportedly shamed the emperor into action, and the council decided to remain in the palace and to fight. The imperial forces, under the command of Belisarius and the eunuch Narses, launched a coordinated assault on the rioters, killing some 30,000 of them and putting an end to the revolt. The Nika Riots gave Justinian the opportunity to rebuild the city, including the construction of the Hagia Sophia, the great church of Holy Wisdom, which became the symbol of the Byzantine Empire.

The Religious Influence

The Monophysite Question

Theodora was a strong supporter of the Monophysite Christians, who were concentrated in the eastern provinces of the empire. The Monophysites rejected the Council of Chalcedon of 451, which had defined Christ as having two natures, divine and human, and they believed that Christ had a single, divine nature. The Chalcedonian definition, which was the official position of the Byzantine church, was rejected by the Monophysite churches of Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and Ethiopia, and the resulting schism was a major source of weakness for the empire.

Theodora used her influence to protect the Monophysite Christians and to give them a degree of religious freedom. She established churches and monasteries in the eastern provinces, where the Monophysites were concentrated, and she persuaded Justinian to moderate the anti-Monophysite policies of the imperial government. Theodora’s most important religious achievement was the establishment of a Monophysite church in Constantinople, the Church of St. Mary in the Palace of Hormisdas, which became a center of Monophysite worship in the capital.

Theodora’s religious policy was not, however, simply pro-Monophysite. She was also a supporter of the orthodox church, and she worked to reconcile the Monophysites with the Chalcedonian orthodoxy. The famous religious gatherings of 533, which were attended by Monophysite and Chalcedonian theologians, were organized under Theodora’s influence, and they were intended to find a formula that would reconcile the two sides. The gatherings were not successful, and the Monophysite schism was not healed, but the attempt shows the sophistication of Theodora’s religious policy.

The Building Program

San Vitale and Sant’Apollinare

Theodora was also a major patron of the arts, and she sponsored a number of building projects in Constantinople and in the provinces. The most famous of these projects is the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, which was built during the reign of Justinian and which contains the famous twin mosaics of Justinian and Theodora. The mosaics depict the imperial couple in a ceremonial procession, accompanied by clergy and courtiers, with the gifts of bread and wine. The mosaics are among the most important surviving works of early Byzantine art, and they are a major element of the cultural heritage of Italy.

Theodora was also a patron of the church of Sant’Apollinare in Classe, near Ravenna, which was built in the early sixth century and which contains an important apse mosaic depicting the Transfiguration. The church is a major example of early Byzantine architecture in Italy, and it is one of the most important surviving monuments of the Justinianic period.

In Constantinople, Theodora was a patron of the rebuilding of the city after the Nika Riots. She sponsored the construction of several churches and monasteries, and she established a number of charitable institutions, including hospitals and orphanages. The most famous of these institutions is the Hospital of St. Sampson, a large medical facility that was built near the Forum of Constantine and that served the poor of the city.

The Death and Legacy

The Death of Theodora

Theodora died in June 548, after a long illness, possibly a plague. She was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, in a tomb that she had prepared for herself. Her death was deeply mourned by Justinian, who reportedly said, “Theodora is dead. The sun has set.” Justinian outlived Theodora by seventeen years, and he never remarried.

Theodora’s death marked the end of one of the most remarkable partnerships in Byzantine history. Theodora had exercised a powerful influence on the imperial policy for more than two decades, and her absence was felt in the religious politics of the empire. The Monophysites lost their most powerful protector, and the Chalcedonian orthodoxy regained its dominant position in the imperial church.

The Legacy of Theodora

The legacy of Theodora has been a complex one, shaped by the writings of Procopius, who was not always favorable to the empress, and by the later Byzantine tradition, which was more sympathetic. Theodora has been celebrated in the modern world, especially in the feminist movement, as a powerful woman who rose above her circumstances to exercise a major role in the political and religious life of her time.

Theodora’s story has been told in a number of famous works, including the painting of the Empress Theodora and her attendants at San Vitale in Ravenna, one of the great masterpieces of early Byzantine art. The painting has been the subject of intense scholarly study, and it has been the inspiration for numerous modern works, including the opera Theodora by Handel and the film Teodora, imperatrice di Bisanzio.

Theodora’s memory has been honored in the modern Greek and Orthodox world, and she is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Her feast day is November 14, and she is commemorated in the liturgical calendars of the Greek and Slavic Orthodox Churches. Theodora is a major figure in the history of Byzantine women, and she is a powerful example of the role of women in the political and religious life of the Byzantine world.

Conclusion

Empress Theodora was one of the most remarkable women in Byzantine history. Born into the lower classes of Constantinople, she rose through her beauty, her intelligence, and her force of personality to become the wife of the most powerful emperor of the Byzantine age. She exercised a powerful influence on the imperial policy, especially in religious matters, and her famous speech during the Nika Riots reportedly saved her husband’s throne. Her legacy has been celebrated in the modern world, especially in the feminist movement, as a powerful example of a woman who rose above her circumstances to exercise a major role in the political and religious life of her time.

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