Introduction

Byzantine society, deeply rooted in Roman legal traditions and Christian ideologies, practiced slavery as a socioeconomic institution. Women within this system faced distinct challenges shaped by their gender, often relegated to roles that emphasized domestic labor, sexual exploitation, and constrained access to emancipation. This article explores the lived realities of enslaved women in the Byzantine Empire, examining how their experiences intersected with broader societal structures.

Domestic Service: Labor and Surveillance

The majority of enslaved women in Byzantium were assigned to domestic service, performing tasks such as cooking, cleaning, child-rearing, and textile production. These roles tethered them to the household, exposing them to close, daily scrutiny by their enslavers and the wider family unit. Unlike agricultural slaves, whose labor was more isolated, domestic servants navigated intimate spaces, creating complex dynamics of dependence and vulnerability. Their work was often invisible in historical records but was critical to maintaining elite households.

Despite their indispensability, enslaved women in domestic roles were frequently subjected to physical and emotional exploitation. Procopius of Gaza's sermons and other contemporary writings highlight the precariousness of their status, as they could be punished for minor transgressions or transferred without consent. However, proximity to the household also offered rare opportunities for upward mobility. Enslaved women who gained favor might inherit resources or be entrusted with managerial duties, though such exceptions were limited.

Concubinage: Coercion and Ambiguous Status

Sexual exploitation was a pervasive aspect of female enslavement in Byzantium, with enslaved women often forced into concubinage. While legal texts like the Corpus Juris Civilis regulated marriage and sexual ethics, they offered little protection to enslaved women, whose bodies were considered property. Concubinage blurred the lines between exploitation and legitimacy, as children born from such relationships sometimes inherited partial rights, particularly if fathers acknowledged them.

The social position of concubines remained fraught. Though a few women-like the 6th-century figure of Antonina, wife of the general Belisarius-leveraged their relationships into positions of influence, most faced enduring stigma. The Basilika, compiled under Emperor Leo VI, reinforced patriarchal control, permitting enslavers to dissolve concubine relationships at will. Religious rhetoric often condemned concubinage as sinful, yet it persisted due to its embeddedness in elite social practices.

Limited Pathways to Emancipation

Emancipation for enslaved women was rare and contingent on the whims of their enslavers. Legal mechanisms such as testamentary manumission allowed enslavers to free slaves in their wills, while religious manumission-often conducted in churches-granted freedom as an act of piety. However, these processes were fraught with barriers. Women were less likely than men to accumulate resources to purchase their own freedom, and conditional emancipation often bound them to new dependencies, such as lifelong service as paid laborers or religious devotees.

Post-emancipation life also remained hostile. Freedwomen faced restricted access to marriage, property ownership, and social legitimacy. Imperial laws occasionally shielded freedwomen from re-enslavement, but their offspring inherited a modified status that marked them as descendants of enslaved people. The Orthodox Church occasionally advocated for emancipation, but its influence was limited to spiritual rather than structural reforms.

Conclusion

The experiences of enslaved women in Byzantine society underscore the intersection of gender, labor, and legal subjugation. Their roles in domestic service and concubinage entrenched their marginalization, while systemic barriers minimized opportunities for liberation. By analyzing these dynamics, we gain insight into how Byzantine slavery reinforced patriarchal power, shaping the lives of women who navigated a world designed to erase their agency. Understanding this history remains vital for contextualizing the enduring legacies of gender-based exploitation in antiquity.